Roman Empire Essay Example for Free

Roman Empire Essay The Roman Empire had stretched so large by the fourth century CE that it had several provincial capitals. The two most important political centers were Rome in the West and Constantinople in the East, which had formerly been called Byzantium. The emperor, Constantine the Great, rebuilt Byzantium to resemble â€Å"Old Rome,† and so this political center became known as the â€Å"New Rome.† Although those who lived in Constantinople referred to themselves as Romans and were part of the Roman Empire, historians now refer to the peoples of the Eastern Roman Empire as Byzantines. Though the Byzantine Empire no longer remains, evidence from the era exists across Southern Europe, North Africa, Southwest Asia, and beyond. The Byzantines are famous for their intricate mosaics, like the golden ones here inside a church in Istanbul, Turkey, which was once known as Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. How Did the Byzantines Continue the Roman Empire? By the end of the fourth century CE, the Roman Empire was permanently split into East and West. While the Byzantine Empire in the East thrived, the Western Roman Empire experienced a series of invasions, a declining economy, and poor leadership. In 476 CE, the last Roman emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by a Germanic prince named Odovacar. After the fall of Rome, Germanic kingdoms claimed former Roman lands. Roads and other public structures fell into disrepair. Likewise, trade and commerce in the West declined. Without a powerful Western Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic Church became a unifying and powerful force in western Europe. In contrast, Byzantine emperors in the East were successful in keeping a powerful army that they could send long distances. While the West was repeatedly invaded after the fourth century CE, the East succeeded in defending itself well enough that Constantinople survived nearly 1,000 years after the fall of Rome. Byzantine leaders co ntinued Roman law and traditions. The Byzantine emperor Justinian is well known for codifying Roman laws. In the process, the authors removed conflicting, duplicated, and outdated Roman laws. Also during Justinians reign, artists revived Hellenistic art and literature. Many historians credit the Byzantine Empire for todays knowledge of ancient Greek and Roman cultures. As the West went into decline, scholars in the East maintained great libraries and established schools for the study of ancient Greek and Roman history. They also continued Roman culture by combining it with aspects of peoples closer to Constantinople. Most Byzantines were Greek, but a mix of North Africans, Arabs, Persians, and Turks also lived within the borders of the Eastern Roman Empire. Latin was the official language of the Roman Empire, but more people spoke Greek in the East. Eventually Greek became the official language in the Byzantine Empire. How Did Christianity Develop in the Byzantine Empire? Time and distance from Rome caused the Byzantine Empire to develop practices that were different from the West. This was especially true of ChristianityByzantine emperors saw themselves as having authority over the whole Roman Empire, including the Catholic Church. The emperor had final authority on church matters. The Patriarch and otherbishops answered to the emperor. In the Byzantine Empire, the highest political authority and highest religious authority was the same person. However, in the West, kings and church leaders were separate, though kings answered to the popeChristianity helped unify the diverse people of the Byzantine Empire. Being head of the church gave the emperors the right to rule in the eyes of the people. Byzantine mosaics often show emperors with halos, emphasizing the connection to the church. The prominent role of Christianity in the empire is evident in the many Byzantine-era churches and the detailed works of art they contain. What Was the Iconoclast Controv ersy? In the eighth and ninth centuries, the Byzantine Empire is probably most famous for theiconoclasm controversy. An icon is a holy image or sculpture of a revered holy figure such as Jesus Christ or a saint. A saint is someone who is recognized as holy or virtuous by the Church. Byzantine art frequently used human forms and symbols to represent important ideas and figures in Christianity. A great debate arose over whether this type of practice, including veneration of the icons, was acceptable.iconoclasts, meaning icon breakers, were those who were against the practice. They feared it could lead to idolatry, forbidden by the Bible. How Did the Controversy Affect the Byzantine Empire? The iconoclast debate became a political issue that lasted more than 100 years. Many historians say it was also the greatest intellectual debate over the purpose of art. The pope and bishops in the West supported the use of icons, as did most Byzantine bishops. The practice had existed for centuries. As the emperor was head of the Byzantine church, he did not need support from church leaders to ban icons. In fact, people who continued to support icons during those times experiencedpersecution. What Other Issues Split East and West? The use of icons as religious symbols was not the only issue dividing the Eastern and Western churches. One was the use of leavened instead of unleavened bread in worship. Church leaders attached special importance to breads made with or without yeast, per quotes in the Bible. They disagreed on the proper interpretations. Another issue was the power of the pope, who saw the position of the emperor over the patriarch in the East as a challenge to his own authority. In addition, the importance of Constantinople as an important Christian city was in debate. Church leaders in the West objected to Byzantine emperors claims of Constantinople having equal importance to Rome. What Was the Great Schism? By 1054, the differences between East and West had grown too wide. That year, Pope Leo IX sent representatives to Constantinople. They insisted that Michael Cerularius, the patriarch of Constantinople, acknowledge the pope as his superior and Rome as the head of the Christian church. The delegates leader, acting on the popes behalf, excommunicated Cerularius. The patriarch excommunicated the delegates and the pope in return. This event marks the Great Schism, or split, in Christianity between East and West. The Church in the West became the Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church continued to grow in the East, based in Constantinople. Roman Catholic Church| Similarities| Eastern Orthodox Church| * Latin was official language * Pope has highest authority, over kings and emperors as well * Priests cannot marry * Married couples could not divorce * Centered in Rome| * Both base teachings on Jesus and the Bible * Both offer sacraments, meaning special church services such as b aptism * Both have priests and bishops as church leaders * Both seek to convert others to Christianity| * Greek was official language * Patriarch and other bishops lead as a group * Emperor claimed authority over the patriarch * Priests can marry * Married couples could divorce under certain conditions * Centered in Constantinople| The Byzantine Empires culture was already spreading to Slavic and other peoples further east and north. Many of these groups converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, especially because of the work of saints Cyril and Methodius. St. Cyril was talented in learning languages and worked to create the first written alphabet for the Slavonic language. He and St. Methodius then were able to begin translating the Bible into the new alphabet. They were missionaries to the Slavs, credited with spreading Christianity and Byzantine influence. Western Roman Empire| Eastern (Byzantine) Empire| Latin was official language| Iconoclast controversy| Pope was highest authority| Orthodox Church| Catholic Church| Greek was official language| Excommunicated iconoclasts| Patriarch was highest church leader| Centered in Rome| Centered in Constantinople|

The Mayor of Casterbridge :: Free Essays Online

The Mayor of Casterbridge The Mayor of Casterbridge, which was subtitled The Life and Death of a Man of Character, was written by Thomas Hardy. The book’s main focus is â€Å"the spiritual and material career of Micheal Henchard, whose governing inclinations are tragically at war with each other† (Penguin Classics, Blurb). Henchard, in a fit of drunkenness, has decided to sell his wife and daughter at a fair. Afterwards, Henchard becomes a wealthy man and the mayor of the town Casterbridge. His wife and child seek him out years later. In the end, it is neither his supposed child, Elizebeth-Jane, nor his wife, Susan, who ruins him but his own self-destructive nature. The novel was published serially in the Graphic and in Harper’s Weekly. The Graphic was the English version and Harper’s Weekly was the American version. They ran concurrently over the nineteen-week period from January second to May fifteenth in the year of 1886. There were no major differences between the serial versions â€Å"except that for reasons of space Harper’s Weekly omitted some passages which were restored in later editions† (Norton Critical Edition, xiii). There were three hundred changes from the manuscript. Essentially, they were only minor â€Å"local† improvements. For example, in the Graphic the slang words â€Å"damn it† become â€Å"hang it†. It appears that the American Harper’s Weekly was not so worried about the novel’s usage of â€Å"inappropriate† language. There were various cancelled plotlines for The Mayor of Casterbridge. The â€Å"notes or plans Hardy had made for the novel before he began writing have not survived† (Norton Critical Edition, xiii). Therefore, there is a great interest in the manuscript as â€Å"evidence† of these ever-changing plotlines. The Norton Critical Editon of the novel says that through the various plotlines they deducted that â€Å"as Hardy began writing, large areas of the action were still to be decided: at one stage there were two be two daughters, one staying with Henchard, the other going with Susan and Newson† (xiii). Furthermore, â€Å"the Elizebeth-Jane of the opening chapters was not to die, so the figure we meet in the body of the novel was to be Henchard’s real daughter† (xiii). Hardy’s reasoning for the many plot changes was to â€Å"distribute the interest of the novel more evenly† (xiii).

Life before meeting Mike Essay

Living each day with fear, unhappiness and without peace of mind was an experience that has taunted me when I started studying Mechanical Engineering at Iowa State University. Adjusting to the environment of homophobia and discriminating behavior gave me a feeling that I was extremely different from the rest of the people in the campus. I was uncomfortable with the discriminating stares, the constant bickering and the behind the back talks that relates to my sexual orientation. Each day, I just want to stay in my room due to the fear for my safety. Studying and living in the environment has never been enjoyable. As days and months passed, my studies were affected. The pressure of taking Mechanical Engineering as my academic major to please my father took a toll on me. My Dad was a Mechanical Engineer by profession and he wanted me to follow his footstep. I started my college education at the age of 17. Due to my desire to study in a gay friendly community and take a course that is of my interest, I decided to study in Canada and switch my major to a program that had both Business and New Media Studies. Toronto University was a perfect fit and I was so blessed to be accepted to study Information Technology Management at Toronto School of Business. Finally, I felt like I was given a refreshing dose of cold water in a sizzling hot summer season. Our First Meeting Going to the DJ Carl Cox and Richie Hawtin concert in Pure Club was a way to get away from the hustles and bustles of school life. While having a great time singing, dancing, cheering and enjoying the music, my eyes suddenly caught the attention of a young man named Mike who bumped into me while I was dancing my way through the crowd. Mike and I were like magnets that got attracted to each other. I liked the way he smiles and I enjoyed his sense of humor. He cracks jokes in any given situation and there are no dull moments with him. After a few exchange of pleasantries, we found out that we were both living in 100 Yonge Street apartments. I was living on the 9th floor and Mike was living on the 15th floor. Other than that, we were also studying in Toronto Business School and in the same department. After many months of staying in my apartment and going to school, I wonder why I met Mike at an unexpected place and not in Yonge Street or in the school campus. It seems that the concert truly paved the way for us to meet each other. We discovered later on that we share the same love for electronic music. Despite our compatibilities in terms of interest, we stayed as friends, hang out mostly within the school premises, and went to parties together from time to time. Unlike in my previous school in Iowa, I have found so many gender friendly people and amenable places in Toronto. I am so happy in Canada and I have considered this as my second country. When Mike came into my life, I felt like I was given an extra shot of adrenalin. I am more inspired to explore new things and to discover my inner strength. Mike is the missing piece of the puzzle in my life. It was in December 2005 that faith orchestrated its way for Mike and me to deeply explore our relationship. By an unfortunate incident, Mike broke his left wrist after a bad fall on the street when he was rollerblading. It was at that time when he had to move out of his apartment due to a financial situation, forcing him to mostly live with his sister Laurie or with me. When the accident occurred, Laurie was out of town for a conference. Hence, Mike got stuck with me. I took care of him when he was confined in the hospital. When he was discharged, he stayed in my house and instantly, I became his caregiver! We have spent the entire holiday season together and our friendship turned into a serious relationship. We loved every moment of our intimacy and we never want to live apart anymore. The deep love, trust, and warmth feeling that we have shared as partners is indescribable. Because we were always in a whirlwind of passion, Mike forgot the extreme pain in his left wrist! Love is indeed a great healing potion. Plans of Settling Down After living together for a year, Mike and I decided that it was the right time to get married. We want our relationship to be built on solid foundations of the love and support that we have for each other. Although we have been talking about getting married as soon as Mike finishes his studies on September and gets a job, we both cannot wait to legalize our relationship. However, since I am not a Canadian citizen, one of the reservations that we had was my capacity to stay in Canada legally. Even if I still have a year and a half to complete my studies and a possible employment of another year, it would be a great relief to get this issue out of our way to avoid any future problems. After getting the support of our best friends, we made a decision on December 2006 to get married on Valentine’s Day, February 14, 2007. Unfortunately, we could not make any reservations as that day was already fully booked. Hence, we settled for February 16, Friday which turned out to be a more convenient date for all our friends who will attend our wedding. This was the second holiday season that we have made a memorable decision. December was indeed marked for our love to flourish and grow deeply. Our Wedding Day Getting up early on that day and looking at the person that I am going to marry gave me an overflowing feeling of happiness. I could not explain the feeling of excitement when I get dressed and boarded the limo with Mike. We held each other’s hand and couldn’t stop smiling as we travel to the City Hall. This is the day that we have been waiting for and we could not wait to exchange â€Å"I do’s! † Our exceptional wedding day has proven that a limited student budget is not a hindrance to make the special occasion a reality. We had a simple wedding at the Toronto City Hall witnessed by our best friends Ruth, Naomi, Tanya, Ali and Dan. While we were standing in front of the Judge who was officiating the wedding ceremony, our hearts were throbbing with happiness as we exchange our marital vows. Chills run down through our spines as we hear the words of the Judge saying, â€Å"I pronounce you _________ †. Our eyes were tearful as we hugged and kissed each other while our friends were giving their warm of applause and congratulatory greetings. Our Families Our families were not present in our wedding day. Mike’s parents had a legal battle of divorce during his childhood years. He never got along with his mom in his entire life and he moved out of their house at an early age. He could not relate to his brothers who were homophobic. He was only close to his sister Laurie who has provided him with care and support since he moved out of their house. She has also been very supportive of our relationship. Unfortunately, Laurie is a conference organizer and her frequent travels prevented her from attending our wedding. My family was not aware of my sexual orientation although they were suspicious. They never had a chance to know me well because I moved to the United States during my high school years when I was about 15. When I informed my mother and sister that I was dating Mike and we were getting married, she became worried about how my father would react to my unexpected revelation. Since I am the only son, my Dad became disappointed. He could not understand why I turn out to be gay. He did not talk to me until the summer of 2007 when my Mom and sister paid us a visit in Toronto and congratulated us on our marriage. In Toronto, Mike and Laurie became good friends and we promised her that she would be part of our honeymoon vacation in Turkey so we could spend quality time with her. My Dad and I had a heart-to-heart talk over the phone and I can sense the pain that he was feeling and his disappointment in learning about my sexual orientation. Dad is a strong person who wanted to give his best for our future. During our talk, I learned that he was concern about the discrimination that I may experience and the legal challenges that I need to face with the choices that I have made. It took a long time for my father to accept me but with the help of my mother and sister, he eventually accepted me for what I am. We are currently in good terms and someday Mike and I will visit my Dad in USA. It was a great feeling to be fully accepted by my family. Mike has been honest about his problems with his family. Since his brothers could not accept him for being gay and his mother was so hurt when her marriage ended in a divorce, it was difficult for him to talk to them. His only way of knowing about his family is through his sister Laurie. Because of this, I have never met any member of his family personally. I have only seen their pictures in Laurie’s home. We can only hope that they would get along someday and make up for lost time. My family is also eager to see my partner’s family in the future. The problem that Mike’s family is encountering is beyond Mike’s sexuality. The conflict is deeply rooted in the negative memories of his parent’s divorce and the painful events that followed. It is in Mike’s longing for family love and support that push me to understand, love and care for him more. Mike and I made a vow never to allow our relationship to reach a point where we would end up like his family. We will value our marriage and extend mutual respect, open and honest communication and unconditional love for each other for the rest of our lives. Our Life as a Couple Our lifestyles have drastically changed since we got married. As a couple, we have shared so much of our leisure times together. We love to relax at home or spend time in a coffee shop while reading books relating to personality development, marketing and scientific research and studies. We are both into arts and music appreciation and occasionally we work our minds and hands on the canvass together. We still love to support local artists. Recently, I have introduced Mike to the community work that I have been supporting. We have spent time in supporting and visiting cancer patients as research on natural treatments is one of my hobbies. In my 5 years of volunteer service, I have developed friendship with Christina, who has successfully recovered with our support. Our Future Plans Mike was hired as a Production Director at X Agency in Mississauga. We are planning to move to Mississauga after we are officially united in Canada. We want to spend our late honeymoon in one of the tourist spots in Turkey. I still intend to finish my college in Toronto University. Hopefully, when I obtain my permanent Canadian residency, my tuition fee will be more affordable. We are saving for my education and we aim to achieve our goals on the summer of 2008.

Fossil Fuels Research Paper by Timothy Mitchell - 628 Words

In the research paper by Timothy Mitchell we came across a lot of issues regarding the fossil fuels specially oil and it’s by products like Petroleum, How it helped in creating possibility of democracy and also its limits. The author explains how the development of the coal industry and the dependence on the energy extracted from coal, became a reason for democratization of politics. Workers who worked in the coal mines came into a position from where all their demands were heard and also attended just because they could affect the flow of energy. Moreover there were two main reasons why we turned to oil, Firstly Oil was considered as the successor of coal and the governments also wanted to move to oil from coal so as to disable the existing powers of the workers with respect to coal. Secondly, it was organized (physically) in such a fashion so that these interruptions became more difficult. In the next section author discusses the history of the Middle East and its connections with oil. After studying and analysing this section a lot of things began to make a lot of sense. As an example considering the so-called â€Å"oil crisis† of 1973-1974 were portrayed as the Arab plot to profit their own economy actually turned out to be a crisis staged by the United States government and the oil companies, ultimately allowing for the transformation of the political landscape, towards what is now known as Neoliberalism. United States tried to recover from there economic crisis byShow MoreRelatedEssay about Recognizing and Shaping Opportunities19389 Words   |  78 Pagesparts of the new venture formation process simultaneously— for simplicity, we have laid out sequential steps in this reading. As you read, keep in mind the lessons John Connolly and his team learned in launching Mainspring, a strategic consulting and research firm that went public and was subsequently acquired by IBM in 2001: tC Our company was started with an idea that reflected our understanding of what the market needed, new technologies that could meet those needs in ways that could not be done